Gregorio Allegri (1582-1652) Giovanni Maria Nanino (also Nanini) (1544-1607) Giovanni Bernardino Nanino (1560-1623) Marc Antonio Ingegneri (also Ingegnieri, Ingignieri, Ingignero, Inzegneri) (1547-1592) Marenzio Luca Marenzio (1553? – August 22, 1599) was an Italian composer of the late Renaissance. He was one of the most renowned composers of madrigals, and wrote perhaps the finest examples of the form in its late stage of development, prior to its early Baroque transformation by Monteverdi. Luzzaschi Luzzasco Luzzaschi (c. 1545 – September 10, 1607) was an Italian composer, organist, and teacher of the late Renaissance. He was born and died in Ferrara, and most likely spent his entire life there. While he is best known as a madrigalist, he was also an accomplished organist and pedagogue (he was the mentor of Frescobaldi). As a child he studied with Cipriano de Rore, and as an adult served as the court organist to Duke Alfonso II, where he did the bulk of his composition. Claudio Monteverdi Claudio Monteverdi (May 15, 1567 (baptised) – November 29, 1643) was an Italian composer, violinist and singer. His work marks the transition from Renaissance to Baroque music. During his long life he produced work that can be classified in both categories, and he was one of the most significant revolutionaries that brought about the change in style. Monteverdi wrote the earliest dramatically viable opera, Orfeo, and was fortunate enough to enjoy fame during his lifetime. Johann Fux Johann Joseph Fux (1660 – February 13, 1741) was an Austrian composer, music theorist and pedagogue of the late Baroque era. He is most famous as the author of Gradus ad Parnassum, a treatise on counterpoint, which has become the single most influential book on the Palestrina style of Renaissance polyphony. Almost all modern courses on Renaissance counterpoint, a mainstay of college music curricula, are indebted in some degree to this work by Fux. Renaissance Renaissance music is classical music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1450 to 1600. Defining the beginning of the era is difficult, since there were no abrupt shifts in musical thinking during of the 15th century, and since the process by which music acquired "Renaissance" characteristics was a gradual one, but 1450 is used here. Josquin Josquin Des Prez (diminutive of "Joseph"; latinized Josquinus Pratensis) (c. 1450 – August 27, 1521) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was the most famous European composer between Guillaume Dufay and Palestrina, and is usually considered to be the central figure of the Netherlands style. Obrecht Jacob Obrecht (November 22, 1457/1458–July, 1505) was a Dutch composer. He was born in Gent and died in Ferrara, Italy, in an outbreak of the plague there. Born in 1457/1458 as the only son of Gent city trumpeter Willem Obrecht and Lijsbette Gheeraerts. While biographical details of his life are sparse, he seems to have had a succession of short appointments, many of which ended in less than ideal circumstances. Arcadelt Jacques Arcadelt (also Jacob Arcadelt) (1504 or 1505 – October 14, 1568) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the middle to late Renaissance, principally of madrigals and chansons. Most likely he was born in Liège, and he died in Paris. Little is known about his early life, but he is known to have been in Rome by 1539, at which time he was made a member of the Julian Chapel. the Sistine Chapel Sistine Chapel (Italian: Cappella Sistina) is a chapel in the Palace of the Vatican, the official residence of the Roman Catholic Pope in the Vatican City. It was built between 1475 and 1483, in the time of Pope Sixtus IV, and is one of the most famous churches of the Western World. The name Sistine is derived from the Italian sistino meaning of or pertaining to Sixtus IV. Council of Trent Council of Trent (Italian: Trento) was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church held in discontinuous sessions between 1545 and 1563 in response to the Protestant Reformation. It clearly specified Catholic doctrines on salvation, the sacraments and the Biblical canon, in opposition to the Protestants, and standardized the Mass throughout the church, largely abolishing local variations; this became called the "Tridentine Mass", after Trent. Giovanni Francesco Anerio Giovanni Francesco Anerio (c.1567–buried June 12, 1630) was an Italian composer of the Roman School, of the very late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. He was the younger brother of Felice Anerio. Giovanni's principal importance in music history was his contribution to the early development of the oratorio; he represented the progressive trend within the otherwise conservative Roman School, though he also shared some of the stylistic tendencies of his brother, who was much indebted to Palestrina. Palestrina Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Born in Palestrina (Praeneste) or Rome, 1525, latest February 1, 1526 – February 2, 1594 in Rome) was an Italian composer of Renaissance music. He was the most famous 16th century representative of the Roman School of music composition. He was nicknamed Il Prenestino. He had a tremendous influence on the development of Roman Catholic church music, and his work can be seen as a summation of Renaissance polyphony, much the way J.S. Bach is for counterpoint in the Baroque era. Felice Anerio Felice Anerio (1560 – September 26 or 27, 1614) was an Italian composer of the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras, and a member of the Roman School of composers. He was the older brother of another important, and somewhat more progressive composer of the same period, Giovanni Francesco Anerio. Francesco Soriano Francesco Soriano (1548 or 1549–1621) was an Italian composer of the Renaissance. He was one of the most skilled members of the Roman School in the first generation after Palestrina. Soriano was born at Soriano, near Viterbo. He studied at the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome with several people including Palestrina, became a priest in the 1570s and by 1580 was maestro di cappella at S. Giuseppe Baini, Orlande de Lassus, a.k.a. Orlandus Lassus, Orlando di Lasso, Roland de Lassus, Roland Delattre (c.1532 Events * May 16 - Sir Thomas More resigns as Lord Chancellor of England. * June 25 - Suleiman I leads another invasion of Hungary, which fails miserably. * November 16 - Francisco Pizarro and his men capture Inca Atahualpa. * Atahualpa wins Inca civil war over Huscar * The Prince is published five years after author Niccolò Machiavelli died * Pantagruel is published by François Rabelais * Henry VIII grants the Thorne brothers a Royal Charter to found Bristol Grammar School. ..... Click the link for more information. – June 14 June 14 is the 165th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (166th in leap years), with 200 days remaining. Events * 1381 - King Richard II of England meets the leaders of Peasants' Revolt. * 1645 - English Civil War: Battle of Naseby – 12,000 Royalist forces are beaten by 15,000 Parliamentarian soldiers. ..... Click the link for more information. , 1594 Events * February 27 - Henry IV is crowned King of France at Rheims. * March 21 - Henry IV enters his capital of Paris for the first time. Births * February 19 - Henry, Prince of Wales (died 1612) * May 1 - John Haynes, colonial magistrate (died 1654) * May 29 - Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, German general (died 1632) * ..... Click the link for more information. ) was a Franco French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. France is a democracy organised as a unitary semi-presidential republic. It is a developed nation with the fifth-largest economy in the world in 2003. Its main values are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. ..... Click the link for more information. -Flemish Flanders (Dutch: Vlaanderen, French: Flandre or Flandres) has two main designations: a historical region (the County of Flanders), and an administrative region of Belgium (the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community). A more controversial designation is those parts of Belgium where Dutch is or was spoken, the community. ..... Click the link for more information. composer of the late Renaissance Renaissance music is classical music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1450 to 1600. Defining the beginning of the era is difficult, since there were no abrupt shifts in musical thinking during of the 15th century, and since the process by which music acquired "Renaissance" characteristics was a gradual one, but 1450 is used here. ..... Click the link for more information. . Along with Palestrina Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Born in Palestrina (Praeneste) or Rome, 1525, latest February 1, 1526 – February 2, 1594 in Rome) was an Italian composer of Renaissance music. He was the most famous 16th century representative of the Roman School of music composition. He was nicknamed Il Prenestino. He had a tremendous influence on the development of Roman Catholic church music, and his work can be seen as a summation of Renaissance polyphony, much the way J.S. Bach is for counterpoint in the Baroque era. he is today considered to be the chief representative of the mature polyphonic Polyphony is a musical texture consisting of several independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice (monophony) or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony). The term is usually used in reference to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance: Baroque forms such as the fugue which might be called polyphonic are usually described instead as contrapuntal. style of the Netherlands school Dutch School refers, somewhat imprecisely, to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. The composers of this time and place, and the music they produced, are also known as the Netherlands School. Other frequently used terms for the composers are Franco-Flemish or Netherlandish. See Renaissance music for a more detailed description of the musical style, and links to individual composers from this time. and he was the most famous and influential musician in Europe at the end of the 16th century 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. from:1450 till:1495 text:Johannes Ockeghem #from 1430 from:1450 till:1505 text:Jacob Obrecht from:1450 till:1521 text:Josquin Des Prez #from 1440 from:1450 till:1517 text:Heinrich Isaac from:1459 till:1522 text:Jean Mouton from:1460 till:1518 text:Pierre de La Rue from:1490 till:1560 text:Nicolas Gombert from:1490 till:1562 text:Adrian Willaert from:1490 till:1545 text:John Taverner from:1505 till:1572 text:Christopher Tye from:1505 till:1585 text:Thomas Tallis from:1510 till:1586 text:Andrea Gabrieli from:1515 till:1565 text:Jacob Clement from:1516 till:1565 text:Cipriano de Rore from:1525 till:1594 text:"Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina" $bold from:1532 till:1594 text:Orlandus Lassus from:1543 till:1623 text:William Byrd from:1548 till:1611 text:Tomas Luis de Victoria from:1557 till:1612 text:Giovanni Gabrieli from:1561 till:1613 text:Carlo Gesualdo 1. from:1480 till:1545 text:Philippe Verdelot 2. from:1466 till:1506 text:Martin Agricola 3. from:1475 till:1520 text:Antoine Brumel 4. from:1495 till:1545 text:Constanzo Festa 5. from:1508 till:1563 text:Hans Newsidler 6. from:1510 till:1572 text:Claude Goudimel 7. from:1530 till:1600 text:Claude Le Jeune 8. from:1545 till:1607 text:Luzzasco Luzzaschi 9. from:1563 till:end text:John Dowland #till 1626 10. from:1567 till:1620 text:Thomas Campion 11. from:1569 till:end text:Tobias Hume #till 1645 12. from:1570 till:end text:John Cooper #till 1626 13. from:1571 till:end text:Michael Praetorius 14. from:1583 till:1625 text:Orlando Gibbons Guillaume Dufay, Johannes Ockeghem (c. 1410 Events * July 15 – Battle of Grunwald (a.k.a. Tannenberg or Zalgiris). Polish-Lithuanian forces under the cousins Wladyslaw Jagiello of Poland and Witowt of Lithuania decisively defeat the forces of the Teutonic Knights, whose power is broken * Jan Hus is excommunicated by the Archbishop of Prague. ..... Click the link for more information. , Saint-Ghislain Saint-Ghislain is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Hainaut. On January 1st, 2004 Saint-Ghislain had a total population of 22,217 (10,520 males and 11,697 females). The total area is 70.18 km² which gives a population density of 316.59 inhabitants per km². ..... Click the link for more information. , Belgium Kingdom of Belgium (French: Royaume de Belgique, Flemish: Koninkrijk België, German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in Western Europe, bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, France, and the North Sea. Belgium is at a cultural crossroad between Germanic Europe and Romance Europe. ..... Click the link for more information. – February 6, 1497 Events * 7 February - followers of Girolamo Savonarola burn thousands of "immoral" objects at the Bonfire of the Vanities in Florence on Shrove Tuesday. * May 10 - Amerigo Vespucci allegedly leaves Cádiz for his first voyage to the New World. * May 13 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola. ..... Click the link for more information. , Tours Tours is a city in France, the préfecture (capital city) of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. Touraine, the region around Tours, is known for its wines and for the perfection of its local spoken French. ..... Click the link for more information. , France French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. France is a democracy organised as a unitary semi-presidential republic. It is a developed nation with the fifth-largest economy in the world in 2003. Its main values are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. ..... Click the link for more information. ) was the leading composer of the Second generation of the Netherlandish school Dutch School refers, somewhat imprecisely, to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. The composers of this time and place, and the music they produced, are also known as the Netherlands School. Other frequently used terms for the composers are Franco-Flemish or Netherlandish. See Renaissance music for a more detailed description of the musical style, and links to individual composers from this time. ..... Click the link for more information. . Ockeghem is often considered the most important composer between Dufay Guillaume Dufay (c. 1400 – November 27, 1474) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the early Renaissance. As the central figure in the Burgundian School, he was the most famous and influential composer of the mid-15th century, and can be considered as the founding member of the Netherlands school which dominated European music for the next 150 years. ..... Click the link for more information. and Josquin Des Prez Josquin Des Prez (diminutive of "Joseph"; latinized Josquinus Pratensis) (c. 1450 – August 27, 1521) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was the most famous European composer between Guillaume Dufay and Palestrina, and is usually considered to be the central figure of the Netherlands style. ..... Click the link for more information. . Recent research has shown that Ockeghem was born in the town of Saint-Ghislain; many older biographies state that he was either born in the town of his name or in the neighboring town of Termonde in East Flanders Flanders (Dutch: Vlaanderen, French: Flandre or Flandres) has two main designations: a historical region (the County of Flanders), and an administrative region of Belgium (the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community). A more controversial designation is those parts of Belgium where Dutch is or was spoken, the community. ..... Click the link for more information. (now part of modern Belgium Kingdom of Belgium (French: Royaume de Belgique, Flemish: Koninkrijk België, German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in Western Europe, bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, France, and the North Sea. Belgium is at a cultural crossroad between Germanic Europe and Romance Europe. ..... Click the link for more information. ), part of the Duchy of Burgundy. Details of his early life are lacking: even his birthdate is unknown, and is usually inferred from a comment by the poet Crétin, at the time of his death, that "it was a great shame that a composer of his talents should die before 100 years old". Like many composers in this period, he started his musical career as chorister, and the first record of his musical activity comes from the cathedral of Notre Dame in Antwerp, where he was employed in 1443 Events * Albanians, under Skanderbeg, defeat the Turks * John Hunyadi defeats Turks at the Battle of Nis * Vlad II Dracul begins his second term as ruler of Wallachia, succeeding Basarab II. Births * May 31 - Margaret Beaufort (mother of Henry VII of England) * December 5 - Pope Julius II (d. 1513) ..... Click the link for more information. and 1444 Events * March 1 - Gjergj Kastriot Skanderbeg proclaimed commander of the Albanian resistance * April 16 - Truce of Tours. Five Year Truce between England and France * August 26 - Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs in the Old Zürich War. Charles VII of France, seeking to send away troublesome troops made idle by the truce with England, sends his son the Dauphin with a large army into Switzerland to support the claims of Emperor Frederick III. ..... Click the link for more information. . Between 1446 Events * Mehmed II Sultan of the Ottoman Empire is forced to abdicate in favor of his father Murad II by the Janissaries. * The Portuguese reach Guinea-Bissau. * October 9 - The Hangul alphabet is created in Korea. The Hunmin Jeongeum published during the year is consided the start of this brand new scientific writing system. * December 10 - Murad II, sultan of the Ottoman Empire, destroys the Hexamillion wall in an assault that includes cannons. This renders the Morea open to Ottoman invasion. ..... Click the link for more information. and 1448 Events * January 5/ 6 - Christopher of Bavaria, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden dies with no designated heir leaving all three kingdoms with vacant thrones. Brothers Bengt Jönsson Oxenstierna and Nils Jönsson Oxenstierna are selected to serve as Co-Regents of Sweden. * June 20 - The Regency period of Sweden ends with the election of Karl Knutsson Bonde as King Charles VIII of Sweden. ..... Click the link for more information. he served Charles, Duke of Bourbon Charles I of Bourbon (1401 - 1456) was Count of Clermont, and Duke of Bourbon and Auvergne from 1434 to his death, although due to the imprisonment of his father after the battle of Agincourt, he acquired control of the duchy before this date. In 1425, Charles married Agnes de Bourgogne (1407-1476), daughter of John, Duke of Burgundy, and by her produced the following 11 children: ..... Click the link for more information. , in Moulins (France). Around 1452 Events * October - English troops under John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, land in Guyenne, France, and retake most of the province without a fight. Births * March 10 - Ferdinand II of Aragon (d. 1516) * April 15 - Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist and inventor * July 10 - King James III of Scotland (d. 1488) * July 27 - Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan (d. 1508) * September 21 -Girolamo Savonarola, Italian religious reformer and ruler of Florence (d. 1498) * October 2 - King Richard III of England ..... Click the link for more information. he moved to Paris Paris is the capital city of France, as well as the capital of the Île-de-France région, whose territory encompasses Paris and its suburbs. The city of Paris proper is also a département, called Paris département (French: département de Paris). Paris, together with its suburbs and satellite cities, forms the Greater Paris metropolitan area, with a population estimated at 11. ..... Click the link for more information. where he served as maestro di cappella to the French court, as well as becoming treasurer of the St. Martin cathedral in Tours Tours is a city in France, the préfecture (capital city) of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. Touraine, the region around Tours, is known for its wines and for the perfection of its local spoken French. ..... Click the link for more information. . In addition to serving at the French court—both for Charles VII Charles VII the Victorious, a.k.a the Well-Served (French: Charles VII le Victorieux, a.k.a. le Bien-Servi) (February 22, 1403 – July 22, 1461) was king of France from 1422 to 1461, a member of the Valois Dynasty. Born in Paris, Charles was the eldest surviving son of Charles VI of France and Isabeau de Bavière. ..... Click the link for more information. and Louis XI Louis XI the Prudent (French: Louis XI le Prudent) (July 3, 1423 – August 30, 1483), also informally nicknamed l'universelle aragne (old French for "universal spider"), was a King of France (1461 - 1483). He was the son of Charles VII of France and Mary of Anjou. He was a member of the Valois Dynasty and was one of the most successful kings of France in terms of uniting the country. His 22-year reign was marked by political machinations, resulting in his being given the nickname of "universal spider". ..... Click the link for more information. —he held posts at Notre Dame Cathedral and St. Benoît. He is known to have traveled to Spain Kingdom of Spain or Spain (Spanish and Galician: Reino de España or España; Catalan: Regne d'Espanya; Basque: Espainiako Erresuma) is a country located in the southwest of Europe. It shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal, Gibraltar and Andorra. To the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it borders France and the tiny principality of Andorra. ..... Click the link for more information. in 1470 Events * May 15 - Charles VIII of Sweden who had served three terms as King of Sweden dies. Sten Sture the Elder becomes Regent of Sweden. * October - A rebellion orchestrated by King Edward's former ally, the Earl of Warwick, forces the King to flee England to seek support from his brother-in-law Charles the Bold of Burgundy. Warwick releases Henry VI from the Tower and restores him to the throne on October 30. * King Afonso V of Portugal conquers the city of Arzila in North Africa. ..... Click the link for more information. , as part of an attempt to arrange a marriage between Isabel of Castille and Charles, Duke of Guyenne (the brother of king Louis XI). After the death of Louis XI (1483 Events * The São Tomé settlement is founded. * April 9 - Edward V becomes King of England. * April - King Edward V of England and his younger brother Richard, Duke of York reside in the Tower of London. Later this year rumors of their murders start circulating. By December the rumors have reached France. ..... Click the link for more information. ), not much is known for certain about Ockeghem's whereabouts, though it is known that he went to Bruges Bruges (Flemish: Brugge (a name probably signifying landing stage)) is the historic capital of West Flanders, Flanders being one of the three regions of Belgium. The municipality comprises the city of Bruges proper and the towns of Assebroek, Dudzele, Koolkerke, Lissewege, Sint-Andries, Sint-Jozef, Sint-Kruis, Sint-Michiels, Sint-Pieters, Zeebrugge, and Zwankendamme. On January 1, 2004, Bruges had a total population of 117,025 (56,685 males and 60,340 females). The total area is 138.40 km² which gives a population density of 845.54 inhabitants per km². ..... Click the link for more information. and Tours Tours is a city in France, the préfecture (capital city) of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Loire, between Orléans and the Atlantic coast. Touraine, the region around Tours, is known for its wines and for the perfection of its local spoken French. ..... Click the link for more information. , and he probably died in the latter town since he left a will there. Ockeghem probably studied with Gilles Binchois Gilles de Binchois or Bins (c. 1400 – September 20,1460), was a Franco-Flemish composer, one of the earliest members of the Burgundian School, and one of the three most famous composers of the early 15th century. While often ranked behind his contemporaries Guillaume Dufay and John Dunstable, at least by contemporary scholars, his influence was arguably greater than either, since his works were cited, borrowed and used as source material more often than those by any other composer of the time. ..... Click the link for more information. , and at the very least was closely associated with him at the Burgundian court. Since Antoine Busnois Antoine Busnois (also Busnoys) (c. 1430 – November 6, 1492) was a French composer and poet of the early Renaissance Burgundian School. While also noted as a composer of sacred music, such as motets, he was one of the most renowned 15th-century composers of secular chansons. Biography ..... Click the link for more information. wrote a motet in honor of Ockeghem sometime before 1467 Events * October 29 - Battle of Brusthem: Charles the Bold defeats Liege * Beginning of the Sengoku Period in Japan. * Circa this year, polyalphabetic cipher invented by Leone Battista Alberti. * Regent of Sweden Erik Axelsson Tott supports the re-election of deposed Charles VIII of Sweden to the throne. ..... Click the link for more information. , it is probable that those two were acquainted as well; and writers of the time often link Dufay, Busnois and Ockeghem. Although Ockeghem's musical style differs considerably from that of the older generation, it is probable that he acquired his basic technique from them, and as such can be seen as a direct link from the Burgundian style to the next generation of Netherlanders, such as Obrecht Jacob Obrecht (November 22, 1457/1458–July, 1505) was a Dutch composer. He was born in Gent and died in Ferrara, Italy, in an outbreak of the plague there. Life Born in 1457/1458 as the only son of Gent city trumpeter Willem Obrecht and Lijsbette Gheeraerts. While biographical details of his life are sparse, he seems to have had a succession of short appointments, many of which ended in less than ideal circumstances. ..... Click the link for more information. and Josquin. Very few of his works have survived: some 14 masses and a Requiem mass, 9 motets and a song motet (a deploration on the death of Binchois), and 21 chansons. Thirteen of Ockeghem's masses are preserved in a late Fifteenth century Flemish manuscript known as the Chigi codex. His Missa pro Defunctis is the earliest surviving example of a polyphonic requiem mass. In addition to his small surviving output, some of the works attributed to him have been questioned: for example the amazing technical tour-de-force for 36 voices, Deo gratias is very likely by someone else, but this remains in dispute; and several of his chansons and motets are anonymous in the sources, but attributed to him on stylistic grounds. A strong influence on Josquin Des Prez, Ockeghem was famous throughout Europe for his expressive music and his technical mastery. His technical prowess is demonstrated most clearly in the astonishing Missa Prolationum, which consists entirely of mensuration canons, and the 'Missa cuiusvis', to be performed in different modes, but even these technique-oriented masterpieces demonstrate his insightful use of vocal ranges and uniquely expressive tonal language. Being a renowned bass singer himself, certainly his use of complex bass lines sets him apart from the other composers in the Netherlandish Schools. To commemorate his death, Josquin Des Prez composed the motet La déploration de la mort de Johannes Ockeghem, a setting of the poem Nimphes des bois by Molinet. he manuscript contains the following works (this list is distilled from that found in Kellman's article): * Alexander Agricola Alexander Agricola (1445 or 1446 – August 1506) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. Life As is common with composers of the period, very little is known of his early life, not even his place of birth. He may have been born in present-day Germany, since he is referred to in some Italian documents as d'Allemagno or d'Allemagna. ..... Click the link for more information. * Missa In myne zyn (without Kyrie) * Antoine Brumel Antoine Brumel (around 1460 – around or after 1515) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. Little is known about his early life, but he was probably born west of Chartres, perhaps in the town of Brunelles, making him one of the first of the Netherlandish composers who was actually French. ..... Click the link for more information. * Missa L'homme armé * Antoine Busnois Antoine Busnois (also Busnoys) (c. 1430 – November 6, 1492) was a French composer and poet of the early Renaissance Burgundian School. While also noted as a composer of sacred music, such as motets, he was one of the most renowned 15th-century composers of secular chansons. Biography ..... Click the link for more information. * Missa L'homme armé * Antoine de Févin Antoine de Févin (c.1470 – late 1511 or early 1512) was a French composer of the Renaissance. He was active at the same time as Josquin Desprez, and shares many traits with his more famous contemporary. Life Févin was born in Arras, the son of an alderman. His brother Robert de Févin was also a composer. ..... Click the link for more information. * Sancta Trinitas unus Deus (addition) * Gaspar van Weerbeke Gaspar van Weerbeke (c.1445–after 1517) was a Netherlandish composer of the Renaissance. He was of the same generation as Josquin Desprez, but unique in his blending of the contemporary Italian style with the older Burgundian style of Dufay. Life He was born in Oudenaarde. ..... Click the link for more information. * Stabat mater * Heinrich Isaac Heinrich Isaac (around 1450 – March 26, 1517) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He is regarded as one of the most significant contemporaries of Josquin Desprez. Little is known about Isaac's early life, but it is probable that he was born in Flanders. It is known that he was writing music by the mid 1470s, and the first documentary reference to him is from 1484, when he was court composer at Innsbruck. ..... Click the link for more information. * Angeli archangeli * Jacobus Barbireau * Missa Virgo parens Christi (without Agnus Dei) * Jean Mouton Jean Mouton (c.1459–October 30, 1522) was a French composer of the Renaissance. He was famous both for his motets, which are among the most refined of the time, and for being the teacher of Adrian Willaert, one of the founders of the Venetian School. Life He was born either in 1459 or earlier, but records of his early life, as is so often the case with Renaissance composers, are scanty. ..... Click the link for more information. * Quis dabit oculis (addition; no attribution) * Johannes Ockeghem Johannes Ockeghem (c. 1410, Saint-Ghislain, Belgium – February 6, 1497, Tours, France) was the leading composer of the Second generation of the Netherlandish school. Ockeghem is often considered the most important composer between Dufay and Josquin Des Prez. Recent research has shown that Ockeghem was born in the town of Saint-Ghislain; many older biographies state that he was either born in the town of his name or in the neighboring town of Termonde in East Flanders (now part of modern Belgium), part of the Duchy of Burgundy. ..... Click the link for more information. * Ave Maria (addition) * Intemerata Dei Mater * Missa Mi-mi * Missa Ecce ancilla Domini * Missa L'homme armé * Missa Fors seulement (Kyrie, Gloria and Credo only) * Missa Sine nomine (Kyrie, Gloria and Credo only) * Missa Ma maistresse (Kyrie and Gloria) * Missa Caput * Missa De plus en plus * Missa Au travail suis * Missa Cuiusvis toni * Missa Prolationum * Missa Quinti toni * Missa Pro defunctis * Johannes Regis * Celsi tonantis * Clangat plebs * Lauda Sion Salvatorem * Lux solempnis (no attribution) * O admirabile commercium * Josquin des Prez Josquin Des Prez (diminutive of "Joseph"; latinized Josquinus Pratensis) (c. 1450 – August 27, 1521) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was the most famous European composer between Guillaume Dufay and Palestrina, and is usually considered to be the central figure of the Netherlands style. ..... Click the link for more information. * Missa L'homme armé sexti toni (Kyrie, Gloria and Credo only) * Stabat mater * Loyset Compère Loyset Compère (c.1445–August 16, 1518) was a French composer of the Renaissance. Of the same generation as Josquin des Prez, he was one of the most significant composers of motets and chansons, and one of the first musicians to bring the light Italianate Renaissance style to France. Life ..... Click the link for more information. * Ave Maria (addition) * Missa L'homme armé * Sancte Michael ora pro nobis (addition; no attribution) * Sile frago ac rerum (no attribution) * Pierre de la Rue Pierre de La Rue (c.1460–November 20, 1518) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. A member of the same generation as Josquin des Prez, he ranks with Agricola, Brumel, Compère, Isaac, Obrecht, and Weerbeke as a leading exponent of the Netherlands style in the decades around 1500. ..... Click the link for more information. * Credo Sine nomine * Missa Almana * Anonymous works * Ave rosa speciosa * Regina coeli (addition) * Vidi aquam (addition) * one untexted motet motet is a word that is applied to a number of highly varied choral musical compositions. The name comes either from the Latin movere, ("to move") or a Latinized version of Old French mot, "word" or "verbal utterance." If from the Latin, the name describes the movement of the different voices against one another. ..... Click the link for more information. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525-1594) Giovanni Lierluigi da Palestrina, called Palestrina after his birthplace, worked as an organist and choirmaster at various churches, including St. Peter's in Rome. His patron, Pope Julius III (r. 1550-1555), appointed him to the Sistine Chapel Choir even though, as a married man, he was ineligible for the semi-ecclesiastical post. He was dismissed by a later pope but ultimately returned to direct another choir at St. Peter's, where he spent the last twenty-three years of his life. Palestrina wrote over a hundred Masses, of which the most famous is the Mass for Pope Marcellus, successor to Julius III. It is popularly believed that this Mass was written to satisfy the new, strict demands placed on polyphonic church music by the Council of Trent. Since the papal choir at the time sang without instrumental accompaniment, the Pope Marcellus Mass was probably performed a cappella. It was written for six voice parts - sporano, alto, two tenors, and two basses, a typical setting for the all-male church choirs of the era. The highest voice was sung by boy sopranos or male falsettists, the alto part by male altos, or countertenors (tenors with very high voices), and the lower parts were distibuted among the normal ranges of the male voice. The Gloria from the Pope Marcellus Mass exhibits Palestrina's conservative style. The work begins with a monophonic intonation of the opening line, "Gloria in excelsis Deo" (Glory be to God on high), which, according to church practice, is chanted by the celebrant (or officiating priest). Palestrina carefully constructed a polyphonic setting for the remaining text, balancing the harmonic and polyphonic elements of his art so the words of the scared text are clear and audible, an effect desired by the Council of Trent. Changes in register and in the number of voices singing at any one time vary the musical texture throughout. Palestrina's music is representative of the pure a cappella style of vocal polyphony. This was his ideal sound - restrained, serene, and celestial. From The Enjoyment of Music (Ninth Edition) Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Born in Palestrina ancient town, for the composer see: Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Palestrina (ancient Praeneste) was and is a very ancient city of Latium (modern Lazio) 23 miles (37 km) east of Rome, and was reached by the Via Praenestina (see below). Palestrina is sited on a strategic spur of the Apennines. ..... Click the link for more information. (Praeneste) or Rome Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma) is the capital city of Italy and of its Latium region. It is located on the lower Tiber river, near the Mediterranean Sea, at 41°54' N 12°29' E . The Vatican City, a sovereign enclave within Rome, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Church and the home of the Pope. ..... Click the link for more information. , 1525 Events * January 21 - The Swiss Anabaptist Movement was born when Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, George Blaurock, and about a dozen others baptized each other in the home of Manz's mother on Neustadt-Gasse, Zürich, breaking a thousand-year tradition of church-state union. * February 10 - Albert of Prussia committed Prussian Tribut. ..... Click the link for more information. , latest February 1, 1526 Events * January 14 - Treaty of Madrid. Peace between Francis I of France and Charles V. Francis agrees to cede Burgundy to Charles, and abandons all claims to Flanders, Artois, Naples, and Milan. * May 22 - Francis repudiates the Treaty of Madrid and forms the League of Cognac against Charles, including the Pope, Milan, Venice, and Florence. ..... Click the link for more information. – February 2 February 2 is the 33rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 332 days remaining (333 in leap years). Events * 962 - Translatio imperii: Pope John XII crowns Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, the first Holy Roman Emperor in nearly 40 years. * 1032 - Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor becomes King of Burgundy. ..... Click the link for more information. , 1594 Events * February 27 - Henry IV is crowned King of France at Rheims. * March 21 - Henry IV enters his capital of Paris for the first time. Births * February 19 - Henry, Prince of Wales (died 1612) * May 1 - John Haynes, colonial magistrate (died 1654) * May 29 - Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, German general (died 1632) * ..... Click the link for more information. in Rome) was an Italian Italian Republic or Italy (Italian: Repubblica Italiana or Italia) is a country in Southern Europe. It comprises a boot-shaped peninsula and two large islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia, and shares its northern alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. It is a founding member of what is now the European Union, and a member state of the United Nations, NATO and the G8 nations. The independent countries of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italian territory. ..... Click the link for more information. composer composer is a person who writes music. The term refers particularly to someone who writes music in some type of musical notation, thus allowing others to perform the music. This distinguishes the composer from a musician who improvises. However, a person may be called a composer without creating music in documentary form, since not all musical genres rely on written notation. In this context, the composer is the originator of the music, and usually its first performer. Later performers then repeat the musical composition they have heard. ..... Click the link for more information. of Renaissance music Renaissance music is classical music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1450 to 1600. Defining the beginning of the era is difficult, since there were no abrupt shifts in musical thinking during of the 15th century, and since the process by which music acquired "Renaissance" characteristics was a gradual one, but 1450 is used here. ..... Click the link for more information. . He was the most famous 16th century 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. See also: 16th century in literature Events * The modern square root symbol is first used. * Portugal conquers the Sultanate of Malacca. ..... Click the link for more information. representative of the Roman School Roman school day was believed to begin before sunrise, and lasted until late afternoon. The fixed beginning of a school year was the 24th of March. In earlier times a boy's education would take place at home, his father teaching him to read, write, and to prepare him for war. Girls on the other hand were taught by their mothers to sew, weave and spin cloth. ..... Click the link for more information. of music composition. Enlarge picture Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina He was nicknamed Il Prenestino. He had a tremendous influence on the development of Roman Catholic church music, and his work can be seen as a summation of Renaissance polyphony Polyphony is a musical texture consisting of several independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice (monophony) or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony). The term is usually used in reference to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance: Baroque forms such as the fugue which might be called polyphonic are usually described instead as contrapuntal. ..... Click the link for more information. , much the way J.S. Bach is for counterpoint in the Baroque Baroque music is European classical music written during the Baroque era, approximately 1600 to 1750. This era occurred after the Renaissance and before the Classical music era. Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon and is widely performed and enjoyed. Overview Style and trends ..... Click the link for more information. era. Life He is first known to have been in Rome in 1537 Events * January 6 - Alessandro de Medici assassinated * August 25 - The Honourable Artillery Company, the oldest surviving regiment in the British Army, and the second most senior, was formed. * Pope Paul III publishes the encyclical Sublimis Deus, which declares the natives of the New World to be rational beings with souls who must not be enslaved or robbed. ..... Click the link for more information. , when he is listed as a choirboy there; he studied with Robin Mallapert Robin Mallapert (fl. 1538–1553) was a French musician of the Renaissance, probably a composer, who spent most of his life in Rome. He is best known as the teacher of Palestrina. Nothing definite is known about the beginning or end of his life, but he was employed successively by several Roman churches and chapels: the Cappella Liberiana at the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, the San Luigi dei Francesi, the Cappella Giulia (the Julian Chapel) at St Peter's, and Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterno. ..... Click the link for more information. and Firmin Lebel. There was a persistent story that he studied under Claude Goudimel Claude Goudimel was a French composer and music theorist of the Renaissance. He was born in Besançon around 1510, and was murdered August 27, 1572 in Lyon. He is known to have been in Paris in 1549, probably studying at the University of Paris, since he published a book of chansons there. He moved to Metz in 1557, converting to Protestantism, and is known to have been associated with the Huguenot cause there; however he left Metz due to the increasing hostility of the city authorities to Protestants during the Wars of Religion. ..... Click the link for more information. , which originated in the 19th century 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) The 19th century lasted from 1801 to 1900 in the Gregorian calendar (using the Common Era system of year numbering). Common usage sometimes regards it as lasting from 1800 to 1899, but this is considered incorrect due to the nonexistence of a "Year Zero" before AD 1. ..... Click the link for more information. , but recent scholarship has disproved this: Goudimel was never in Rome. In 1544 Events * April 11 - Battle of Ceresole - French forces under the Comte d'Enghien defeat Imperial forces under the Marques Del Vasto near Turin. * May - Emperor Charles V again invades eastern France * June 19 - August 18 - Imperial siege of St. Dizier in eastern France * July 19 - September 14 - English forces under Henry VIII besiege and capture Boulogne. ..... Click the link for more information. -51 * Russia, Reforming Synod of the metropolite Macaire, Orthodoxy: introduction of a calendar of the saints and an ecclesiastical law code ( Stoglav ) Major outbreak of the sweating sickness in England. * Foundation of the National University of Saint Mark in Lima%2C_Peru. Births ..... Click the link for more information. Palestrina was organist of the principal church of his native city (St. Agapito, Palestrina), and in the latter year became maestro di cappella at the Julian Chapel (Cappella Giulia) in Rome. With his first published compositions, a book of masses Mass as a standard form of classical music composition. For the Mass and its meaning as a part of the Eucharistic liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, see Mass (liturgy). For mass as a concept in physics, see mass. The Mass as a form of musical composition is a choral composition that sets the fixed portions of the Eucharistic liturgy (principally that of the Roman Catholic Church) to music. ..... Click the link for more information. which he presented to Pope Julius III Julius III, né Gian Maria del Monte or Giovan Maria Giocci (September 10, 1487 - March 23, 1555), was pope from February 7, 1550 to 1555. The last of the High Renaissance popes, he was born at Rome, the son of a famous jurist. He succeeded his uncle as archbishop of Siponto (Manfredonia) in Apulia in 1512, and added the diocese of Pavia in 1520. At the Sack of Rome in 1527, he was one of the hostages given by Clement VII to the Emperor's forces, and might have been killed in the Campo di Fiori as others were, had he not been secretly liberated by Cardinal Pompeo Colonna. ..... Click the link for more information. (previously the Bishop of Palestrina), he made so favorable an impression that he was appointed musical director of the Julian Chapel. In addition, this was the first book of masses by a native Italian composer: most composers of sacred music in Italy at that time were from the Netherlands, France or Spain. In fact his book of masses was actually modeled on one by Morales Cristóbal de Morales (c.1500–October 7, 1553) was a Spanish composer of the Renaissance. He is generally considered to be the most influential Spanish composer before Victoria. Life He was born in Seville, and after an exceptional early education there, which included a rigorous training in the classics as well as musical study with some of the foremost composers of the time, he held posts at Avila and Plasencia. ..... Click the link for more information. , and the woodcut in the front is an almost exact copy of the one from the book by the Spaniard. Palestrina held positions similar to his Julian Chapel appointment at other chapels and churches in Rome during the next decade (notably St. John Lateran, from 1555 Events * Russia breaks 60 year old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland * May 23 - Paul IV becomes Pope. * September 25 - Peace of Augsburg is signed. Births * March 18 - François, Duke of Anjou, youngest son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici (died 1584) * # ..... Click the link for more information. to 1560 Bloody Lady of Csejte (died 1614) August 10 - Hieronymus Praetorius, German composer (died 1629) # November 3 - Annibale Carracci, Italian painter (died 1609) # December 3 - Jan Gruter, critic and scholar of the Netherlands (died 1627) # Felice Anerio, Italian composer (died 1614) # Jacobus Arminius, Dutch Reformed theologian (died 1609) # ..... Click the link for more information. , and St. Maria Maggiore, from 1561 Events * The Edict of Orleans suspends the persecution of the Huguenots. * Mary, Queen of Scots is denied passage through England after returning from France. She arrives at Leith, Scotland on August 19. * The first Calvinists settle in England after fleeing Flanders. * Madrid is declared the capital of Spain by Philip II. ..... Click the link for more information. to 1566 Events * January 7 - Pius V becomes Pope * Selim II succeeds Suleiman I as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire * Religious rioting in the Netherlands signifies the beginning of the Eighty Years War in the Netherlands. * The first bridge crossing the Neretva river at Mostar (in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina) is completed by the Ottoman Empire. The white marble bridge is now known as Stari Most (or "Old Bridge"). ..... Click the link for more information. ). In 1571 Events * January 11 - Austrian nobility is granted Freedom of religion. * January 23 - The Royal Exchange opens in London. * Crimean Tatars from the Crimean Khanate seize and burn Moscow. * Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School founded in Horncastle * October 7 Battle of Lepanto - Spanish, Venetian, and Papal naval forces under Don John of Austria defeat the Turkish fleet of Ali Monizindade Pasha. ..... Click the link for more information. he returned to the Julian Chapel, and remained at St. Peter's for the rest of his life. The decade of the 1570s Significant Events and Trends * Transition from the Muromachi to the Azuchi-Momoyama period in Japan ..... Click the link for more information. was difficult for him personally; he lost his brother, both his sons, and his wife in three separate outbreaks of the plague (1572 * Zygmunt II August (born 1520) Christopher Tye, English composer and organist (born 1505) * Yasumi Naomasa, Japanese military commander * Stanislaw Zamoyski, Polish nobleman (born 1519) ..... Click the link for more information. , 1575 Events * February 13 - Henry III of France is crowned at Reims * February 14 - Henry III of France marries Louise de Lorraine-Vaudémont * August 5 - Henry Sidney is appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. * October 10 - Battle of Dormans: Catholic forces under Duke Henry of Guise defeat the Protestants, capturing Philippe de Mornay among others. ..... Click the link for more information. and 1580 respectively). He seems to have considered becoming a priest at this time, but instead he married again, this time to a wealthy widow; this finally gave him financial independence (he was not well paid as choirmaster) and he was able to compose prolifically until his death. Music and Reputation Palestrina left hundreds of compositions, including 104 masses, 68 offertories, 250 motets, 45 hymns, psalms, 33 magnificats, litanies, 4 or 5 sets of lamentations etc., at least 140 madrigals and 9 organ ricercari (however, recent scholarship has classed these ricercari as of doubtful authorship; Palestrina probably wrote no purely instrumental music). His Missa sine nomine seems to have been particularly attractive to Johann Sebastian Bach, who studied and performed it while he was writing his own masterpiece, the Mass in B Minor. His compositions are typified as very clear, with voice parts well-balanced and beautifully harmonized. Among the works counted as his masterpieces is the Missa Papae Marcelli (Pope Marcellus Mass), which according to legend was composed to persuade the Council of Trent that a draconian ban on polyphonic treatment of text in sacred music was unnecessary. However, more recent scholarship shows that this mass was composed before the cardinals convened to discuss the ban (possibly as much as ten years before). It is probable, however, that Palestrina was quite conscious of the needs of intelligible text in conformity with the doctrine of the Counter-Reformation, and wrote his works towards this end from the 1560s until the end of his life. The "Palestrina Style"—the smooth style of 16th century polyphony, derived and codified by Johann Joseph Fux from a careful study of his works—is the style usually taught as "Renaissance polyphony" in college counterpoint classes, although in a modified form, as Fux made a number of stylistic errors which have been corrected by later authors (notably Jeppesen and Morris). As codified by Fux it follows the rules of what he defined as "species counterpoint." No composer of the 16th century was more consistent in following his own rules, and staying within the stylistic bounds he imposed on himself, than was Palestrina. Also, no composer of the 16th century has had such an edifice of myth and legend built around him. Much of the research on Palestrina was done in the 19th century by Giuseppe Baini, who published a monograph in 1828 which made Palestrina famous again, and reinforced the already existing legend that he was the "Savior of Church Music" during the reforms of the Council of Trent. The 19th century attitude of hero-worship is predominant in this monograph, however, and this has remained with the composer to some degree to the present day; Hans Pfitzner's opera Palestrina shows this attitude at its peak. Scholarship of the 20th and 21st centuries tends to retain the view that Palestrina was a strong and refined composer, representing a summit of technical perfection, but emphasizes that there were other composers working at the same time with equally individual voices and slightly different styles, even within the confines of smooth polyphony, such as Lassus and Victoria. Palestrina was immensely famous in his day, and his reputation, if anything, increased in the next century. Conservative music of the Roman School continued to be written in his style (being known as the "prima prattica" in the 17th century), for instance by Gregorio Allegri. Palestrina's music continues to be performed and recorded, and to provide models for the study of counterpoint. For information on specific theorists, see Johannes Tinctoris, Franchinus Gaffurius, Heinrich Glarean, Pietro Aron, Nicola Vicentino, Tomás de Santa Maria, Gioseffo Zarlino, Vicente Lusitano, Vincenzo Galilei, Giovanni Artusi, Johannes Nucius, and Pietro Cerone. The Burgundian School of composers, led by Guillaume Dufay, demostrated charactersistics of both the late Medieval era and the early Renaissance (see Medieval music). This group gradually dropped the late Medieval period's complex devices of isorhythm and extreme syncopation, resulting in a more limpid and flowing style. What their music "lost" in rhythmic complexity, however, it gained in rhythmic vitality, as a "drive to the cadence" became a prominent feature around mid-century. Towards the end of the 15th century, polyphonic sacred music (as exemplified in the masses of Johannes Ockeghem and Jacob Obrecht) had once again become more complex, in a manner that can perhaps be seen as correlating to the stunning detail in the painting at the time. Ockeghem, particularly, was fond of canon, both contrapuntal and mensural. He even composed a mass in which all the parts are derived canonically from one musical line. It was in the opening decades of the next century that music felt in a tactus (think of the modern time signature) of two semibreves-to-a-breve began to be as common as that with three semibreves-to-a-breve, as had prevailed prior to that time. Middle Renaissance music (1500 - 1550) In the early 16th century, there is another trend towards simplification, as can be seen to some degree in the work of Josquin des Prez and his comtemporaries in the Franco-Flemish school, then later in that of G. P. Palestrina, who was partially reacting to the strictures of the Council of Trent, which discouraged excessively complex polyphony as inhibiting understanding the text. Early 16th-century Franco-Flemmings moved away from the complex systems of canonic and other mensural play of Ockeghem's generation, tending toward points of imitation and duet or trio sections within an overall texture that grew to five and six voices. They also began, even before the Tridentine reforms, to insert ever-lengthening passages of homophony, to underline important text or points of articulation. Palestrina, on the other hand, came to cultivate a freely flowing style of counterpoint in a thick, rich texture within which consonance followed dissonance on a nearly beat-by-beat basis, and suspensions ruled the day (see counterpoint). By now, tactus was generally two semibreves per breve with three per breve used for special effects and climactic sections; this was a nearly exact reversal of the prevailing technique a century before. Late Renaissance music (1550 - 1600) In Venice, from about 1550 until around 1610, an impressive polychoral style developed, which gave Europe some of the grandest, most sonorous music composed up until that time, with multiple choirs of singers, brass and strings in different spatial locations in the Basilica San Marco di Venezia (see Venetian School). These multiple revolutions spread over Europe in the next several decades, beginning in Germany and then moving to Spain, France and England somewhat later, demarcating the beginning of what we now know as the Baroque musical era. The Roman School was a group of composers of predominantly church music, in Rome, spanning the late Renaissance into early Baroque eras. Many of the composers had a direct connection to the Vatican and the papal chapel, though they worked at several churches; stylistically they are often contrasted with the Venetian School of composers, a concurrent movement which was much more progressive. By far the most famous composer of the Roman School is Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose name has been associated for four hundred years with smooth, clear, polyphonic perfection. The brief but intense flowering of the musical madrigal in England, mostly from 1588 to 1627, along with the composers who produced them, is known as the English Madrigal School. The English madrigals were a cappella, predominantly light in style, and generally began as either copies or direct translations of Italian models. Most were for three to six voices. Musica reservata is a term referring to either a style or a performance practice in a cappella vocal music of the latter, mainly in Italy and southern Germany, involving refinement, exclusivity, and intense emotional expression of sung text. In addition, many composers observed a division in their own works between a prima prattica (music in the Renaissance polyphonic style) and a seconda prattica (music in the new style) during the first part of the 17th century. In music Music is an art, entertainment, or other human activity that involves organized and audible sound, though definitions may vary. What is music? Main article: Definitions of music. Music is often defined by contrast with noise or speech. Some definitions of music place it explicitly within a cultural context by defining music as what people accept as musical. ..... Click the link for more information. , the Dutch School refers, somewhat imprecisely, to the style of polyphonic Polyphony is a musical texture consisting of several independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice (monophony) or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony). The term is usually used in reference to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance: Baroque forms such as the fugue which might be called polyphonic are usually described instead as contrapuntal. ..... Click the link for more information. vocal music composition in Europe in the 15th 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. Events * Renaissance affects philosophy, science and art. * The New Monarchs come to power in France, England, Portugal and Spain. ..... Click the link for more information. and 16th 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. See also: 16th century in literature Events * The modern square root symbol is first used. * Portugal conquers the Sultanate of Malacca. ..... Click the link for more information. centuries. The composers of this time and place, and the music they produced, are also known as the Netherlands School. Other frequently used terms for the composers are Franco-Flemish or Netherlandish. See Renaissance music Renaissance music is classical music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1450 to 1600. Defining the beginning of the era is difficult, since there were no abrupt shifts in musical thinking during of the 15th century, and since the process by which music acquired "Renaissance" characteristics was a gradual one, but 1450 is used here. ..... Click the link for more information. for a more detailed description of the musical style, and links to individual composers from this time. The composers of this period, however, were by no means all Dutch in the modern geographical sense: Many of them originated in (modern) northern France French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. France is a democracy organised as a unitary semi-presidential republic. It is a developed nation with the fifth-largest economy in the world in 2003. Its main values are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. ..... Click the link for more information. , Belgium Kingdom of Belgium (French: Royaume de Belgique, Flemish: Koninkrijk België, German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in Western Europe, bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, France, and the North Sea. Belgium is at a cultural crossroad between Germanic Europe and Romance Europe. ..... Click the link for more information. and western parts of Germany The Federal Republic of Germany is one of the world's leading industrialised countries, located in the heart of Europe. It is bordered to the north by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea, to the south by Austria and Switzerland, to the west by France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, and to the east by Poland and the Czech Republic. ..... Click the link for more information. . This part of Europe was collectively known as the Netherlands. During periods of political stability, it was a center of cultural activity for more than two hundred years, although the exact centers shifted location during this time, and by the end of the sixteenth century the focal point of the musical world shifted from this region to Italy. While many of the composers were born in the region loosely known as the Netherlands, they were famous for working elsewhere. Netherlanders moved to Italy Italian Republic or Italy (Italian: Repubblica Italiana or Italia) is a country in Southern Europe. It comprises a boot-shaped peninsula and two large islands in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily and Sardinia, and shares its northern alpine boundary with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. It is a founding member of what is now the European Union, and a member state of the United Nations, NATO and the G8 nations. The independent countries of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italian territory. ..... Click the link for more information. , to Spain Kingdom of Spain or Spain (Spanish and Galician: Reino de España or España; Catalan: Regne d'Espanya; Basque: Espainiako Erresuma) is a country located in the southwest of Europe. It shares the Iberian Peninsula with Portugal, Gibraltar and Andorra. To the northeast, along the Pyrenees mountain range, it borders France and the tiny principality of Andorra. ..... Click the link for more information. , to towns in Germany and France and other parts of Europe, carrying their styles with them. The diffusion of their technique, especially after the revolutionary development of printing Printing is an industrial process for reproducing copies of texts and images, typically with ink on paper using a printing press. It is an essential part of publishing. Books are usually printed today using the technique of offset printing, and occasionally relief print, (which is principally used for newspapers and catalogues). The largest commercial and industrial printer in the world is Montréal, Quebec based Quebecor World. ..... Click the link for more information. , produced the first true international style since the unification of Gregorian chant Gregorian chant is also known as plainchant or plainsong, and is a form of monophonic, unaccompanied singing, which was developed in the Catholic church, mainly during the period 800-1000. It takes its name from Pope St. Gregory the Great, who is believed to have brought it to the West based on Eastern models of Byzantine chant. ..... Click the link for more information. in the 9th century 9th century - 10th century - other centuries) Events * Beowulf might have been written down in this century, though it could also have been in the 8th century * Reign of Charlemagne, and concurrent (and controversially labeled) Carolingian Renaissance in western Europe * Viking attacks on Europe begin * Oseberg ship burial * The Magyars arrive in what is now Hungary, forcing the Serbs and Bulgars south of the Danube. ..... Click the link for more information. . Following are five groups, or generations, that are sometimes distinguished in the Netherlands school. It should be noted that development of the musical style was continuous, and these generations only provide useful reference points. * The First generation (1420-1450), dominated by Dufay Guillaume Dufay (c. 1400 – November 27, 1474) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the early Renaissance. As the central figure in the Burgundian School, he was the most famous and influential composer of the mid-15th century, and can be considered as the founding member of the Netherlands school which dominated European music for the next 150 years. ..... Click the link for more information. and Binchois Gilles de Binchois or Bins (c. 1400 – September 20,1460), was a Franco-Flemish composer, one of the earliest members of the Burgundian School, and one of the three most famous composers of the early 15th century. While often ranked behind his contemporaries Guillaume Dufay and John Dunstable, at least by contemporary scholars, his influence was arguably greater than either, since his works were cited, borrowed and used as source material more often than those by any other composer of the time. ..... Click the link for more information. ; this group of composers is most often known as the Burgundian School Burgundian School is a term used to denote a group of composers active in the 15th century in what is now eastern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, centered on the court of the Dukes of Burgundy. The main names associated with this school are Guillaume Dufay, Gilles Binchois, and Antoine Busnois. ..... Click the link for more information. * The Second generation (1450-1485), with Ockeghem Johannes Ockeghem (c. 1410, Saint-Ghislain, Belgium – February 6, 1497, Tours, France) was the leading composer of the Second generation of the Netherlandish school. Ockeghem is often considered the most important composer between Dufay and Josquin Des Prez. Recent research has shown that Ockeghem was born in the town of Saint-Ghislain; many older biographies state that he was either born in the town of his name or in the neighboring town of Termonde in East Flanders (now part of modern Belgium), part of the Duchy of Burgundy. ..... Click the link for more information. as its main exponent * The Third generation (1480-1520): Obrecht Jacob Obrecht (November 22, 1457/1458–July, 1505) was a Dutch composer. He was born in Gent and died in Ferrara, Italy, in an outbreak of the plague there. Life Born in 1457/1458 as the only son of Gent city trumpeter Willem Obrecht and Lijsbette Gheeraerts. While biographical details of his life are sparse, he seems to have had a succession of short appointments, many of which ended in less than ideal circumstances. ..... Click the link for more information. , Isaac Heinrich Isaac (around 1450 – March 26, 1517) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He is regarded as one of the most significant contemporaries of Josquin Desprez. Little is known about Isaac's early life, but it is probable that he was born in Flanders. It is known that he was writing music by the mid 1470s, and the first documentary reference to him is from 1484, when he was court composer at Innsbruck. ..... Click the link for more information. and Josquin Josquin Des Prez (diminutive of "Joseph"; latinized Josquinus Pratensis) (c. 1450 – August 27, 1521) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was the most famous European composer between Guillaume Dufay and Palestrina, and is usually considered to be the central figure of the Netherlands style. ..... Click the link for more information. * The Fourth generation (1520-1560): Willaert and Clemens non Papa Jacques Clément or Jacob Clemens non Papa (c. 1510 to 1515 – 1555 or 1556) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was a prolific composer in many of the current styles, and was especially famous for his polyphonic settings of the psalms in Dutch known as the Souterliedekens. ..... Click the link for more information. * The Fifth generation (1560-1600): Lassus. By this time, many of the composers of polyphonic music were native to Italy and other countries: the Netherlandish style had naturalized on foreign soil, and become a true international style. Orlande de Lassus, a.k.a. Orlandus Lassus, Orlando di Lasso, Roland de Lassus, Roland Delattre (c.1532 Events * May 16 - Sir Thomas More resigns as Lord Chancellor of England. * June 25 - Suleiman I leads another invasion of Hungary, which fails miserably. * November 16 - Francisco Pizarro and his men capture Inca Atahualpa. * Atahualpa wins Inca civil war over Huscar * The Prince is published five years after author Niccolò Machiavelli died * Pantagruel is published by François Rabelais * Henry VIII grants the Thorne brothers a Royal Charter to found Bristol Grammar School. ..... Click the link for more information. – June 14 June 14 is the 165th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (166th in leap years), with 200 days remaining. Events * 1381 - King Richard II of England meets the leaders of Peasants' Revolt. * 1645 - English Civil War: Battle of Naseby – 12,000 Royalist forces are beaten by 15,000 Parliamentarian soldiers. ..... Click the link for more information. , 1594 Events * February 27 - Henry IV is crowned King of France at Rheims. * March 21 - Henry IV enters his capital of Paris for the first time. Births * February 19 - Henry, Prince of Wales (died 1612) * May 1 - John Haynes, colonial magistrate (died 1654) * May 29 - Gottfried Heinrich Graf zu Pappenheim, German general (died 1632) * ..... Click the link for more information. ) was a Franco French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. France is a democracy organised as a unitary semi-presidential republic. It is a developed nation with the fifth-largest economy in the world in 2003. Its main values are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. ..... Click the link for more information. -Flemish Flanders (Dutch: Vlaanderen, French: Flandre or Flandres) has two main designations: a historical region (the County of Flanders), and an administrative region of Belgium (the Flemish Region and the Flemish Community). A more controversial designation is those parts of Belgium where Dutch is or was spoken, the community. ..... Click the link for more information. composer of the late Renaissance Renaissance music is classical music written during the Renaissance, approximately 1450 to 1600. Defining the beginning of the era is difficult, since there were no abrupt shifts in musical thinking during of the 15th century, and since the process by which music acquired "Renaissance" characteristics was a gradual one, but 1450 is used here. ..... Click the link for more information. . Along with Palestrina Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (Born in Palestrina (Praeneste) or Rome, 1525, latest February 1, 1526 – February 2, 1594 in Rome) was an Italian composer of Renaissance music. He was the most famous 16th century representative of the Roman School of music composition. He was nicknamed Il Prenestino. He had a tremendous influence on the development of Roman Catholic church music, and his work can be seen as a summation of Renaissance polyphony, much the way J.S. Bach is for counterpoint in the Baroque era. ..... Click the link for more information. he is today considered to be the chief representative of the mature polyphonic Polyphony is a musical texture consisting of several independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice (monophony) or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords (homophony). The term is usually used in reference to music of the late Middle Ages and Renaissance: Baroque forms such as the fugue which might be called polyphonic are usually described instead as contrapuntal. ..... Click the link for more information. style of the Netherlands school Dutch School refers, somewhat imprecisely, to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. The composers of this time and place, and the music they produced, are also known as the Netherlands School. Other frequently used terms for the composers are Franco-Flemish or Netherlandish. See Renaissance music for a more detailed description of the musical style, and links to individual composers from this time. ..... Click the link for more information. , and he was the most famous and influential musician in Europe at the end of the 16th century 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. See also: 16th century in literature Events * The modern square root symbol is first used. * Portugal conquers the Sultanate of Malacca. ..... Click the link for more information. . Life He was born in Mons Mons (Dutch: Bergen) is a municipality located in the Belgian province of Hainaut, of which it is the capital. On January 1st, 2004 Mons had a total population of 91,185 (43,506 males and 47,679 females). The total area is 146.56 km² which gives a population density of 622.19 inhabitants per km². ..... Click the link for more information. in the province of Hainaut Hainaut (Dutch: Henegouwen) is the westernmost province of Wallonia, in Belgium. It borders on (clockwise from the North) the Belgian provinces of West Flanders, East Flanders, Flemish Brabant, Walloon Brabant and Namur, and France. Its capital is Mons. It has a surface area of 3800 km² and is divided into seven administrative districts (French: arrondissements) which contain 69 municipalities. A somewhat old-fashioned English version is Hainault. ..... Click the link for more information. , in what is today Belgium Kingdom of Belgium (French: Royaume de Belgique, Flemish: Koninkrijk België, German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in Western Europe, bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, France, and the North Sea. Belgium is at a cultural crossroad between Germanic Europe and Romance Europe. ..... Click the link for more information. . Information about his early years is scanty, although some uncorroborated stories have survived, the most famous of which is that he was kidnapped three times because of the singular beauty of his singing voice. At the age of 12 he left the Low Countries Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries (see "Country") on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse (Maas) rivers. The term is not particularly current in modern contexts because the region does not very exactly correspond with the nation-states The Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, for which an alternate term, the Benelux was applied after World War II. . ..... Click the link for more information. with Ferrante Gonzaga Gonzaga is the name of an historical Italian family of rulers, for which, see below. Several Catholic educational institutions have been named after the early Jesuit St. Aloysius Gonzaga: * Gonzaga College High School is a Jesuit high school in Washington, DC * Gonzaga Prepatory High School is a Jesuit high school in Spokane, Washington * ..... Click the link for more information. and went to Mantua Mantua (in Italian " Mantova ") is a city in Lombardy, Italy and capital of the province with the same name. * Located at 45.10N, 10.47E. * Area of the commune: 63.97 sq. km * Population of the commune: 47,790 (2001 census); 53,065 (1991 census) History The town was founded presumably around 2000 BC on the banks of the Mincio river, a sort of island among its waters (an indeed safe natural protection), and in the 6th century BC was an Etruscan village that Etruscan tradition described as re-founded by Oscno. ..... Click the link for more information. , Sicily Sicily (Sicilia in Italian) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,700 sq. km and 5 million inhabitants. Towns and Cities Sicily's principal cities include the regional capital Palermo, together with the other provincial capitals Catania, Messina, Syracuse (Siracusa in Italian), Trapani, Enna, Caltanissetta, Agrigento, Ragusa. ..... Click the link for more information. , and later Milan MILAN 2 Type anti-tank Nationality joint France/German Era Cold War Platform Individual, Vehicle Target Vehicle History Builder Date of design Production period Service duration Operators War service Specifications Type Diameter 0.125 (0.26 m inc wings) Length 0.918 m ..... Click the link for more information. (from 1547 Events * January 16 - Grand Duke Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia. * January 28 - Edward VI succeeds his father Henry VIII as King of England. * February 20 - Edward VI of England is crowned at Westminster Abbey * March 31 - Henry II succeeds his father Francis I as King of France * April 24 - Battle of Mühlberg - Emperor Charles V defeats the forces of the Schmalkaldic League under the Elector John Frederick of Saxony. ..... Click the link for more information. to 1549 Events * July - Kett's Rebellion * Francis Xavier arrives in Japan. * Salvador established, first capital of Brazil * Petrus Canisius starts the Counter-Reformation in Bavaria Births * July 30 - Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (died 1609) * November 5 - Philippe de Mornay, French protestant writer (died 1623) * ..... Click the link for more information. ). While in Milan he made the acquaintance of the madrigalist Hoste da Reggio, an influence which was formative on his early musical style. He then worked as a singer and a composer for Constantino Castrioto in Naples Naples (Italian Napoli, Neapolitan Napule, from Greek ??a ????? - Néa Pólis - meaning "New City") is the largest city in southern Italy and capital of Campania Region. The city has a population of about 1 million, and together with its suburbs, the metropolitan area has 3.7 million inhabitants (Neapolitans). It is located just halfway between the Vesuvius volcano and another unrelated volcanic area, the Campi Flegrei. ..... Click the link for more information. in the early 1550s Events and Trends ..... Click the link for more information. , and his first works are presumed to date from this time. Next he moved to Rome, where he worked for the Archduke of Florence Florence (Italian, Firenze) is a city in the center of Tuscany, in central Italy at 43°46' N 11°15' E . The city on the Arno River has a population of around 400,000, plus a suburban population in excess of 200,000. Florence is the capital of the region of Tuscany and briefly (1865-1871) the capital of the kingdom of Italy. Florence was long ruled (1434-1494, 1512-1527 and 1530-1737) by the Medici family. ..... Click the link for more information. , who maintained a household there; and in 1553 Events * June 26 - Christ's Hospital in London gets a Royal Charter * July 6 - Edward VI of England dies * July 10 - Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England - for the next nine days * July 18 - Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen - Lady Jane Grey willingly abdicates * August 2 - Battle of Marciano. ..... Click the link for more information. , he became maestro di cappella (chorus leader) of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterno in Rome Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma) is the capital city of Italy and of its Latium region. It is located on the lower Tiber river, near the Mediterranean Sea, at 41°54' N 12°29' E . The Vatican City, a sovereign enclave within Rome, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Church and the home of the Pope. ..... Click the link for more information. , a spectacularly prestigious post for a man only 21 years old, but he stayed there only for a year (Palestrina took this post a year later, in 1555 Events * Russia breaks 60 year old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland * May 23 - Paul IV becomes Pope. * September 25 - Peace of Augsburg is signed. Births * March 18 - François, Duke of Anjou, youngest son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici (died 1584) * ..... Click the link for more information. ). # No solid evidence survives for his whereabouts in 1554 John the Magnanimous (born 1503) April 11 - Thomas Wyatt the younger, rebel leader during the reign of Queen Mary I of England (born 1521) # September 22 - Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, Spanish conquistador (born 1510) # October 18 - John Dudley, 2nd Earl of Warwick, heir of John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland (born 1528) # ..... Click the link for more information. , but there are contemporary claims that he traveled in France and England. In 1555 Events * Russia breaks 60 year old truce with Sweden by attacking Finland * May 23 - Paul IV becomes Pope. * September 25 - Peace of Augsburg is signed. Births * March 18 - François, Duke of Anjou, youngest son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici (died 1584) * ..... Click the link for more information. he returned to the Low Countries Low Countries, the historical region of de Nederlanden, are the countries (see "Country") on low-lying land around the delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse (Maas) rivers. The term is not particularly current in modern contexts because the region does not very exactly correspond with the nation-states The Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, for which an alternate term, the Benelux was applied after World War II. . ..... Click the link for more information. and had his early works published in Antwerp Antwerp (Dutch: Antwerpen, French: Anvers, Spanish: Amberes) is a city and a municipality in the province of Antwerp (and its capital), in Flanders, one of the three regions of Belgium. As of January, 2005 Antwerp had a total population of around 457,729. The total area is 204.51 km² which gives a population density of 2,238.17 inhabitants per km². The metropolitan area has a population of circa 800,000. ..... Click the link for more information. (1555-1556). In 1556 he joined the court of duke Albrecht V of Bavaria, who was consciously attempting to create a musical establishment on par with the major centers in Italy; Lassus was one of several Netherlanders to work there, but by far the most famous. By 1563 he had been appointed maestro di cappella. He evidently was happy in Munich and decided to settle there, marrying in 1568 and having two sons, both of whom became composers. Lassus was to remain in the service of Albrecht V and his heir, Wilhelm V, for the rest of his life. By the 1560s Lassus had become quite famous, and composers began to go to Munich to study with him. Andrea Gabrieli went there in 1562, and possibly remained in the chapel for a year; Giovanni Gabrieli also possibly studied with him in the 1570s. His renown had spread outside of strictly musical circles, for in 1570 Emperor Maximilian II conferred nobility upon him, a rare circumstance for a composer; Pope Gregory XIII knighted him; and in 1571, and again in 1573, the king of France, Charles IX, invited him to visit. Some of these kings and aristocrats attempted to woo him away from Munich with more attractive offers, but Lassus was evidently more interested in the stability of his position, and the splendid performance opportunities of Albrecht's court, than in financial gain. "I do not want to leave my house, my garden, and the other good things in Munich," he wrote to the Duke of Saxony in 1580, upon receiving an offer for a position in Dresden. In the late 1570s and 1580s Lassus made several visits to Italy, where he encountered the most modern styles and trends. In Ferrara, the center of avant-garde activity, he doubtless heard the madrigals being composed for the d'Este court; however his own style remained conservative, indeed becoming more simple and more refined as he aged. In the 1590s his health began to decline, and he was treated for hypochondria; however he still was able to compose as well as travel occasionally. His final work was the exquisite set of 21 madrigale spirituale, the Lagrime di San Pietro (Tears of St. Peter), which he dedicated to Pope Clement VIII, and published posthumously in 1595. Lassus died in Munich, on June 14, 1594, the same day that his employer decided to dismiss him for economic reasons; he never saw the letter. Music and influence One of the most prolific, versatile, and universal composers of the late Renaissance, Lassus wrote over 2000 works in all Latin, French, Italian and German vocal genres known in his time. These include 530 motets, 175 Italian madrigals and villanellas, 150 French chansons, and 90 German lieder. No strictly instrumental music by Lassus is known to survive, or ever to have existed; an interesting omission for a composer otherwise so wide-ranging and prolific. Sacred music Orland di Lassus (Roland de Lattre). While Lassus remained Catholic, he largely refused to conform to some of the more severe dictates coming from the Counter-Reformation Council of Trent across the Alps. He lived in a relatively tolerant area, and his predecessor had been a Protestant. Almost 60 masses have survived complete; most of them are parody masses based on secular works written by himself or other composers. Technically impressive, they are nevertheless the most conservative part of his output. He usually conformed the style of the mass to the style of the source material, which ranged from Gregorian chant to contemporary madrigals, but always maintained an expressive and reverent character in the final product. In addition to his traditional parody masses, he wrote a considerable quantity of missae breves, "brief masses," syllablic short masses meant for brief services (for example, on days when Duke Albrecht went hunting: evidently he did not want to be detained by long-winded polyphonic music). The most extreme of these is an actual work known as the Jäger Mass (Missa venatorum)—the "Hunter's Mass." Lassus is one of the composers of a style known as musica reservata—a term which has survived in many contemporary references, many of them seemingly contradictory. The exact meaning of the term is a matter of fierce debate, though a rough consensus among musicoligists is that it involves intensely expressive setting of text, chromaticism, and that it may have referred to music specifically written for connoisseurs. A famous example of a composition by Lassus which is a representative of this style is his series of 12 motets entitled Prophetiae Sibyllarum, which is in a wildly chromatic style reminiscent of Gesualdo; some of his chord progressions in this piece were not to be heard again until the 20th century. Lassus wrote four settings of the Passion, one for each of the Evangelists, St. Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. All are for a cappella voices. He sets the words of Christ and the narration of the Evangelist as chant, while setting the passages for groups polyphonically. As a composer of motets, Lassus was one of the most diverse and prodigious of the entire Renaissance. His output varies from the sublime to the ridiculous, and he showed a sense of humor not often associated with sacred music: for example, one of his motets satirizes poor singers (super flumina Babylonis) which includes stuttering, stopping and starting, and general confusion; it is related in concept if not in style to Mozart's A Musical Joke. Many of his motets were composed for ceremonial occasions, as could be expected of a court composer who was required to provide music for visits of dignitaries, weddings, treaties and other events of state. But it was as a composer of religious motets that Lassus achieved his widest and lasting fame. Lassus's setting of the seven Penitential Psalms of David (Psalmi Davidis poenitentiales) is one of the most famous collections of psalm settings of the entire Renaissance. The counterpoint is free, avoiding the pervasive imitation of the Netherlanders such as Gombert, and occasionally using expressive devices foreign to Palestrina. As elsewhere, Lassus strives for emotional impact, and uses variety of texture and care in text setting towards that end. The final piece in the collection, his setting of the De profundis (Psalm 129/130), is considered by many scholars to be one of the high-water marks of Renaissance polyphony, ranking alongside the two settings of the same text by Josquin Desprez. Among his other liturgical compositions are hymns, canticles (including over 100 Magnificats), responsories for Holy Week, Passions, Lamentations, and some independent pieces for major feasts. Secular music Lassus wrote in all the prominent secular forms of the time, including Italian madrigal, French chanson and German lied: he is one of the only Renaissance composers to write prolifically in four languages (Latin, Italian, French and German), and he wrote with equal fluency in each. Many of his songs became hugely popular, circulating widely in Europe. Lassus was probably the only composer of the late Renaissance to have this gift of musical tongues. In these various secular songs he conforms to the manner of the country of origin while still showing his characteristic originality, wit, and conciseness of statement. Madrigals In his madrigals, many of which he wrote during his stay in Rome, his style is clear and concise, and he wrote tunes which were easily memorable; he also "signed" his work by frequently using the word 'lasso' (and often setting with the sol-fege syllables la-sol, i.e. A-G in the key of C). His choice of poetry varied widely, from Petrarch for his more serious work to the lightest verse for some of his amusing canzonettas. Lassus often preferred cyclic madrigals, i.e. settings of multiple poems in a group as a set of related pieces of music. For example, his fourth book of madrigals for five voices begins with a complete sestina by Petrarch, continues with two-part sonnets, and concludes with another sestina: therefore the entire book can be heard as a unified composition with each madrigal a subsidiary part. Chansons Another form which Lassus cultivated was the French chanson, of which he wrote about 150. Most of them date from the 1550s, but he continued to write them even after he was in Germany: his latest productions in this genre come from the 1580s. They were enormously popular in Europe, and of all his works, the most widely arranged for instruments such as lute and keyboard. Most were collected in the 1570s and 1580s in three publications: one by Pierre Phalèse in 1571, and two by Le Roy & Ballard in 1576 and 1584. Stylistically, they ranged from the dignified and serious, to playful, bawdy, and amorous compositions, as well as drinking songs suited to taverns. German lieder A third type of secular composition by Lassus was the German lieder. Most of these he evidently intended for a different audience, since they are considerably different in tone and style from either the chansons or madrigals; in addition, he wrote them later in life, with none appearing until 1567, when he was already well-established at Munich. Many are on religious subjects, although light and comic verse are represented as well. He also wrote drinking songs in German, and contrasting with his parallel work in the genre of the chanson, he also wrote songs on the unfortunate aspects of overindulgence. * ibly Thomas Byttering) (fl. c. 1410-1420) * Nicolas Grenon (c.1375-1456) * John Dunstable (c.1380-1453) * Hugo de Lantins (fl. c.1430) * Arnold de Lantins (fl. c.1430) * Leonel Power (d.1445) * Gilles Binchois (c.1400-1460) * Johannes Brassart (c.1400-1455) * Guillaume Dufay (c.1400-1474) [edit] Early Renaissance composers (1450-1500) * John Browne (?-1505) * Conrad Paumann (c.1410-1473) * Johannes Ockeghem (c.1415-1497) * Johannes Regis (c.1425-c.1496) * Walter Frye (fl. c.1450-1475) * Robert Morton (c.1430-after 1475) * Antoine Busnois (c.1430-1492) * Juan de Urrede (c.1430-after 1482) * Firminus Caron (fl. c.1460-c.1475) * Juan Pérez de Gijón (fl. c.1460-1500) * Francisco de la Torre (fl. c.1460-1500) * Guillaume Faugues (fl. c.1460-1475) * Juan de Triana (fl. c.1460-1500) * Richard Hygons (c.1435-c1509) * Johannes Tinctoris (c.1435-1511) * Johannes Martini (c.1440-1497 or 1498) * Heinrich Finck (1444 or 1445-1527) * Hayne van Ghizeghem (c.1445-c.1480) * Gaspar van Weerbeke (c.1445-after 1517) * Alexander Agricola (1446?-1506) * Philippe Basiron (c.1449-1491) * Josquin des Prez (c1450-1521) * Edmund Turges (c1450 - ?) * Walter Lambe (c1450 - after 1504) * Matthaeus Pipelare (c.1450-c.1515) * Robert Wilkinson (c1450-1515 or later) * Heinrich Isaac (c.1450-1517) * Jean Japart (fl. c.1474-1481) * Loyset Compère (c1450-1518) * Arnolt Schlick (c1450-c1525) * Franchinus Gaffurius (1451-1522) * Jacob Obrecht (c1453-1505) * Jacobus Barbireau (1455-1491) * Jean Mouton (c1459-1522) * Paul Hofhaimer (1459-1537) * Pierre de La Rue (c1460-1518) * Antoine Brumel (1460-after 1520) * Robert Fayrfax (1464-1521) * Richard Davy (c1465-c1507) * William Cornysh (c1465-1523) * Pedro de Escobar (c1465-1535) * Juan del Encina (1468-c1529) * Marchetto Cara (c1470-1525?) * Carpentras (c1470-1548) * Antoine de Févin (c1470-1511 or 1512) * Robert de Févin (fl. late 15th, early 16th c.) (brother of Antoine de Févin) * Mathieu Gascongne (fl. early 16th c.) * Francisco de Peñalosa (c1470-1528) * Bartolomeo Tromboncino (c1470-c1535) [edit] Middle Renaissance composers (1500-1550) * Ninot le Petit (fl. c. 1500-1520) * Vincenzo Capirola (1474-after 1548) * Bartolomeo degli Organi (1474-1539) * Filippo de Lurano (c1475-c1520) * Philippe Verdelot (c1475-before 1552) * Marco Dall'Aquila (c.1480-after 1538) * Jean l'Heritier (1480-1552) * Gasparo Alberti (c1480-1560) * Jean Richafort (c1480-1547) * Hans Buchner (1483-c1540) * Jacquet of Mantua (1483-1559) * Robert Carver (1484-1568) * Nicholas Ludford (1485-1557) * Hugh Aston (c1485-1558) * Clément Janequin (c1485-1558) * Pierre Moulu (c1485-c1550) * Martin Agricola (1486-1556) * Ludwig Senfl (c1486-c1542) * John Taverner (c1490-1545) * Leonhard Kleber (c1490-1556) * Bernardo Pisano (1490-1548) * Thomas Crecquillon (c1490-?1557) * Sandrin (Pierre Regnault) (c.1490-c.1560) * Claudin de Sermisy (c1490-1562) * Adrian Willaert (c1490-1562) * Francesco de Layolle (1492-c1540) * Lupus Hellenck (c.1494-1541) * Lupus (c.1495-after 1530) * Costanzo Festa (c1495-1545) * Nicolas Gombert (c1495-c1560) * David Peebles (fl. c1530-1579) * Pietro Paolo Borrono (fl. c1531-1549) * Johann Walter (1496-1570) * Francesco da Milano (1497-1543) * Luis de Narvaez (fl. c1540) * Arnold von Bruck (c.1500-1554) * Heliodoro de Paiva (c1500-1552) * Cristóbal de Morales (c1500-1553) * Luis de Milán (c1500-c1561) * Tielman Susato (c1500-c1562) * Bartolomé de Escobedo (c1500-1563) * Jacques Buus (c1500-1565) * Hilaire Penet (1501?-15??) * Francesco Corteccia (1502-1571) * Giovanni Paolo Paladini (fl. c1540-1560) * Marco da l'Aquila (fl. c1505-1555) * Jacques Arcadelt (1505?-1568) (also known as Jacob Arcadelt) * Christopher Tye (c1505-1572?) * Thomas Tallis (c1505-1585) * Johannes Lupi (c1506-1539) * Bálint Bakfark (1507-1576) (aka Valentin/Valentine/Valentinus Bakfark) * Giovanni Battista Conforti (fl. c1550) * Jacob Clemens non Papa (c1510-c1555) (Jacques Clément) * Guillaume Morlaye (c1510-c1558) * Claudio Veggio (c1510-15??) * Loys Bourgeois (c1510-1560) (also known as Louis Bourgeois) * Pierre de Manchicourt (c1510-1564) * Juan Bermudo (c1510-c1565) * Antonio de Cabezón (1510-1566) * Jean Maillard (c1510-c1570) * Diego Ortiz (c1510-c1570) * Claude Goudimel (c1510-1572) * Alonso Mudarra (c1510-1580) * Andrea Gabrieli (c.1510-1586) * Giuseppe Guami (1510-1586) * Vincenzo Ruffo (c.1510-1587) * Pierre Certon (d.1572) * Agostino Agostini (d.1569) * Ambrose Lupo (d.1591) * Giovanni Domenico da Nola (c.1515-1592) * John Sheppard (c1515-1559) * Cypriano de Rore (c1515-1565) * Tomás de Santa María (c1515-1570) * Adrian Le Roy (fl. c1550-1580) * Antonio Carreira (c1515-c1590) * Leonardo Meldart Fiamengo (fl. c1550-1600) * Fabrizio Dentice (fl. c1550-1600) * Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590) * John Black (c1520-1587) * Vincenzo Galilei (c1520-1591) * Didier Lupi Second (c.1520-after 1559) [edit] Late Renaissance composers (1550-1600) * Vicente Lusitano (fl. 1550-1561) * Philippe de Monte (1521-1603) * Girolamo Cavazzoni (c1525-after 1577) * Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c1525-1594) * Baldassare Donato (1525 to 1530-1603) * Hermann Finck (1527-1558) * Annibale Padovano (1527-1575) * John Angus (fl. c1562-1595) * Francisco Guerrero (1528-1599) * Alberto da Ripa (1529-1551) * Costanzo Porta (c1529-1601) * William Mundy (c1530-before 1591) * Rodrigo de Ceballos (c1530-1591) * Guillaume Boni (c1530-1594) * Elias Nikolaus Ammerbach (c1530-1597) * Fabrizzio Caroso (c1530-after 1600) * Guillaume Costeley (1530-1606) * Claude Le Jeune (1530-1600) * Orlandus Lassus (c1531-1594) (also known as Orlando di Lasso) * Jacobus de Kerle (1531 or 1532-1591) * Hernando Franco (1532-1585) * Giammateo Asola (1532 or earlier-1609) * Claudio Merulo (1533-1604) * Lodovico Agostini (1534-1590) * Francesco Soto de Langa (1534-1619) * Pietro Vinci (c1535-1584) * Filippo Azzaiolo (fl. 1557-1569) * Girolamo Conversi (fl. c1570-1590) * Giaches de Wert (1535-1596) * Robert Whyte (1538-1574) * Giovanni Leonardo Primavera (1540-1585) * Maddalena Casulana (c1540-c1590) * Vincenzo Bellavere (15??-1587) * Alessandro Striggio (c1540-1592) * Francisco de Peraza (fl. c1575-c1600) * Gioseffo Guami (c1540-1611) * Hernando de Cabezón (1541-1602) * Anthony Holborne (?-1602) * William Byrd (1543-1623) * Alfonso Ferrabosco (I) (1543-1588) * Giovanni Maria Nanino (Nanini) (1543 or 1544-1607) * Francesco Guami (c.1544-1602) * Girolamo Dalla Casa (d.1601) * Jacob Polonais (c1545 - 1605) * Luzzasco Luzzaschi (c1545-1607) * Giulio Caccini (c1545-1618) * Marc Antonio Ingegneri (c1547-1592) * Manuel Mendes (c1547-1605) * Francesco Soriano (c1548-1621) * Tomas Luis de Victoria (1548-1611) * Eustache Du Caurroy (1549-1609) * Giovanni de Macque (c.1549-1614) * Emilio de' Cavalieri (c1550-1602) * Jacobus Gallus (Jacob Handl) (1550-1591) * Pomponio Nenna (c1550-1613) * Pedro de Cristo (c1550-1618) * Orazio Vecchi (1550-1605) * Girolamo Belli (1552-c.1620) * Leonhard Lechner (c1553-1606) * Luca Marenzio (c1553-1599) * Paolo Bellasio (1554-1594) * Girolamo Diruta (c1554-after 1610) * Alonso Lobo (c1555-1617) * Nicholas Strogers (fl. c1590-1620) * Gabriele Villani (c1555-1625) * Manuel Rodrigues Coelho (c1555-c1635) * Richardo Rogniono (15?? - 1620) * Johannes Nucius (c.1556-1620) * Giovanni Croce (c1557-1609) * Conte Alfonso Fontanelli (1557-1622) * Jacques Mauduit (1557-1627) * Thomas Morley (1557-1603) * Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612) * Giovanni Bassano (c1558-1617) * Giulio Belli (c1560-c1621) * Ruggiero Giovannelli (c1560-1625) * Antonio Il Verso (c1560-1621) * Giovanni Bernardino Nanino (1560-1623) * Peter Philips (1560-1628) * Hieronymus Praetorius (1560-1629) * William Brade (1560-1630) * Dario Castello (c1560-c1640) * Felice Anerio (c1560-1614) * Jacopo Peri (1561-1633) * Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562-1621) * Hans Leo Hassler (1562-1612) * John Bull (1562-1628) * John Dowland (1563-1626) * Giles Farnaby (c1563-1640) * Kryštof Harant z Polžic a Bezdružic (1564-1621) * Sebastián Aguilera de Heredia (1565-1627) * Ascanio Mayone (1565-1627) * Duarte Lobo (c1565-1647) * Alessandro Piccinini (1566-1638) * Manuel Cardoso (1566-1650) * Carlo Gesualdo (1560-1613) * Thomas Campion (1567-1620) * Christoph Demantius (1567-1643) * Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) * Adriano Banchieri (1568-1634) * Diomedes Cato (c1570-after 1615) * Giovanni Paolo Cima (1570-1622) * Alphonso Ferrabosco (II) (c1570-1628) * Michael Praetorius (c1571-1621) * Thomas Lupo (1571-1627) * Daniel Bacheler (1572-1618) * Thomas Tomkins (1572-1656) * Juan Pujol (c1573-1626) * Claudio Pari (1574-after 1619) * John Wilbye (1574-1638) * William Simmes (c1575-c1625) * John Coprario (c1575-1626) * John Maynard (c1576 - before 1633) * Thomas Weelkes (1576-1623) * Melchior Franck (1579-1639) * Sigismondo d'India (c1582-1629) * Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625) * Antonio Cifra (1584-1629) * John Jenkins (1592-1678) * William Corkine (15?? - after 1617) * Richard Sumarte (15?? - after 1630) Gabrieli was born in Venice. While not much is known about his early life, he probably studied with his uncle, the composer Andrea Gabrieli, and he may also have studied with Orlando de Lassus while he was in Munich at the court of Duke Albrecht V; most likely he stayed there until about 1579. By 1584 he had returned to Venice, where he became principal organist at the church of San Marco in 1585, after Claudio Merulo left the post; and following his uncle's death the following year also took the post of principal composer. Also after his uncle's death he took on the task of editing much of his music, which would otherwise be lost; Andrea evidently had little inclination to publish his own music, but Giovanni's opinion of it was sufficiently high that he devoted a lot of his own time to compiling and editing it for publication. San Marco had a long tradition of musical excellence and Gabrieli's work there made him one of the most noted composers in Europe. The vogue which began with his influential volume Sacrae symphoniae (1597) was such that composers from all over Europe, especially from Germany, came to Venice to study. Evidently he also made his new pupils study the madrigals being written in Italy, so not only did they carry back the grand Venetian polychoral style, but also the more intimate madrigalian style to their home countries; Hans Leo Hassler, Heinrich Schütz, Michael Praetorius and others helped transport the transitional early Baroque music north to Germany, an event which was decisive on subsequent music history. The productions of the German Baroque, culminating in the music of J.S. Bach, were founded on this strong tradition which had its original roots in Venice. Gabrieli was also associated with the Confraternity of San Rocco, another Venetian church, at which some of the most renowned singers and instrumentalists in Italy performed; a vivid description of the music there survives in the travel memoirs of the English writer Thomas Coryat. Gabrieli was increasingly ill after about 1606, at which time church authorities began to appoint deputies to take over duties he could no longer perform. He died in 1612, of complications from a kidney stone. Adrian Willaert (c. 1490–December 7, 1562) was a Flemish composer of the Renaissance and founder of the Venetian School. He was one of the most representative members of the generation of northern composers who moved to Italy and transplanted the polyphonic Franco-Flemish style there. Cristóbal de Morales (c.1500–October 7, 1553) was a Spanish composer of the Renaissance. He is generally considered to be the most influential Spanish composer before Victoria. He was born in Seville, and after an exceptional early education there, which included a rigorous training in the classics as well as musical study with some of the foremost composers of the time, he held posts at Avila and Plasencia. By 1535 he had moved to Rome, where he was a singer in the papal choir, evidently due to the interest of Pope Paul III who was partial to Spanish singers. He remained in Rome until 1545, in the employ of the Vatican; then, after a period of unsuccessfully seeking other employment in Italy (with the emperor, as well as with Cosimo de' Medici) he returned to Spain, where he held a succession of posts, many of which were marred by financial or political difficulties. While he was renowned by this time as one of the greatest composers in Europe, he seems to have been unpopular as an employee, for he began to have difficulty finding and keeping positions. He died in Marchena. [edit] Music and influence Almost all of his music is sacred, and all of it is vocal, though instruments may have been used in an accompanying role in performance. He wrote many masses, some of spectacular difficulty, most likely written for the expert papal choir; he wrote over 100 motets; and he wrote 18 settings of the Magnificat, and at least five settings of the Lamentations of Jeremiah (one of which survives from a single manuscript in Mexico). The Magnificats alone set him apart from other composers of the time, and they are the portion of his work most often performed today. Stylistically, his music has much in common with other middle Renaissance work of the Iberian peninsula, for example a preference for harmony heard as functional by the modern ear (root motions of fourths or fifths being somewhat more common than in, for example, Gombert or Palestrina), and a free use of harmonic cross-relations rather like one hears in English music of the time, for example in Thomas Tallis. Some unique characteristics of his style include the rhythmic freedom, such as his use of occasional three-against-four polyrhythms, and cross-rhythms where a voice sings in a rhythm following the text but ignoring the meter prevailing in other voices. Late in life he wrote in a sober, heavily homophonic style, but all through his life he was a careful craftsman who considered the expression and understandability of the text to be the highest artistic goal. Morales was the first Spanish composer of international renown. His works were widely distributed in Europe, and many made the journey to the New World. Many music writers and theorists in the hundred years after his death considered his music to be among the most perfect of the time. In music history, the Roman School was a group of composers of predominantly church music, in Rome, during the 16th and 17th centuries, therefore spanning the late Renaissance and early Baroque eras. The term also refers to the music they produced. Many of the composers had a direct connection to the Vatican and the papal chapel, though they worked at several churches; stylistically they are often contrasted with the Venetian School of composers, a concurrent movement which was much more progressive. By far the most famous composer of the Roman School is Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose name has been associated for four hundred years with smooth, clear, polyphonic perfection. However, there were other composers working in Rome, and in a variety of styles and forms. [edit] History and Characteristics While composers had almost certainly been working in Rome continuously for the thousand years since the time of Gregory the Great, the development of a consistent style around the middle of the 16th century, due in part to the musical requirements of the Counter-Reformation, led to their being grouped together by music historians under this single label. The music of the Roman School can be seen as the culmination of a development of polyphony through the infusion of music of the Franco-Netherlandish school during the last hundred years. Franco-Netherlandish composers had long been coming to Italy to live and work—Josquin, Obrecht, Arcadelt, and many others made the long journey, and their musical style was decisive on the formation of the Italian styles. Under the guidance of the Vatican, and with the choir of the Sistine Chapel being one of the finest of the time, it was perhaps inevitable that the stylistic center of sacred polyphony would turn out to be Rome. The Council of Trent, which met from 1543 to 1563, had a significant impact on the music of the Roman School: indeed it can be argued that these reforms in the Catholic Church, which were part of the Counter-Reformation, defined the music of the Roman School. The Council of Trent recommended that sacred music, especially for use in church, be written in a dignified, serious style. The Council allowed polyphony—a common misconception is that they banned it outright, but this is false—however they did require that text which was sung be clearly understandable. In addition, while they did not ban the use of secular melodies as source material for masses and motets, such use was discouraged. The combination of the reforms of the Council of Trent with the presence of the extremely talented composers inheriting the Franco-Netherlandish style, was the production of a body of music which has sometimes been held to represent the peak of perfection of Renaissance polyphonic clarity. The subject matter of "16th Century Counterpoint" or "Renaissance Polyphony" as taught in contemporary college music curricula is invariably the codified style of the Roman school, as it was understood by Johann Fux in the early 18th century. It is important to recognize, though, that the "Palestrina style" was not the only polyphonic style of the time, though it may have been the most internally consistent. The polyphonic style of Palestrina may have been the culmination of a hundred years of development of the Franco-Netherlandish style, but it was one of many streams in the late 16th century, and significantly contrasts with the music of the Venetian school to the north, as well as the music being produced in France and England at the same time. Other composers living and working in Rome, while not considered members of the Roman School, certainly influenced them. The most famous of these is probably Luca Marenzio, whose madrigals were wildly popular in Italy and elsewhere in Europe; some of the composers of the Roman School borrowed his expressive techniques, for instance word-painting, for occasional use in a liturgical setting. While the Roman School is considered to be a conservative musical movement, there are important exceptions. Rome was the birthplace of the oratorio, in the work of Giovanni Francesco Anerio and Emilio de' Cavalieri; the score for Cavalieri's Rappresentatione di Anima et di Corpo is the earliest printed score which uses a figured bass. The style is similar to the style of monody being developed in Florence at approximately the same time; indeed there was considerable competition between composers in those two musical centers. The success of Rappresentatione was such that the monodic style became common in much Roman music in the first several decades of the 17th century. Later composers of the Roman School included Gregorio Allegri, composer of the famous Miserere (c.1630). This piece was guarded closely by the papal chapel; it was considered so beautiful that copies were not allowed to circulate. A favorite story involves the 14-year-old Mozart, who made the first illegal copy by transcribing it from memory after hearing it only twice. Many of the later composers of the Roman School continued to write in the polyphonic style of the 16th century, known then as the stile antico, or the prima prattica, in distinction to the newer styles of monody and concertato writing which defined the beginning of the Baroque era. [edit] Composers Members of the Roman School, including some who were active in Rome for only part of their careers, are as follows: * Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c1525–1594) * Felice Anerio (c1564–1614) * Giovanni Francesco Anerio (c1567–1630) (Younger brother of Felice) * Gregorio Allegri (1582–1652) (Composer of the famous Miserere) * Paolo Bellasio * Antonio Cifra (1584–1629) * Domenico Allegri (c1585–1629) * Marc Antonio Ingegneri (c1545–1592) * Giovanni Maria Nanino (1543–1607) * Emilio de' Cavalieri (c1560–1602) * Annibale Stabile (c1535–1595) * Giovanni Dragoni (c1540–1598) * Francesco Soriano (c1548–1621) * Paolo Quagliati (c1555–1628) * Ruggiero Giovannelli (c1560–1625) * Giovanni Bernardino Nanino (1560–1623) * Stefano Landi (1586 or 1587–1639) * Virgilio Mazzocchi (1597–1646) * Francesco Foggia (1604–1688) * Annibale Zoilo * Bartolomeo Roy * Giovanni de Macque * J. Matelart * René de Mel

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